--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Mass disasters represent a significant challenge for dental personnel who are frequently called upon to provide identifications. Recently-published materials have highlighted the need to prepare such groups for the disaster challenge and report inadequacies in existing preparation methods with an emphasis on team integration, organisation and the psychological and emotional effects of such work. Many studies have retrospectively reported errors that have been made in disaster situations, but few have addressed the issues proactively. In an effort to provide a prepared team of dental members, a mock disaster exercise (Operation: DENT-ID) is conducted annually in Vancouver, Canada. This study analysed the effectiveness of this exercise in relation to team organisation, assessment of preparedness and the emotional and psychological issues. An index of preparedness was developed and described. This index, in the form of a questionnaire, can be given to participants in mock disasters to assess the effectiveness of such exercises. While the focus of this paper is on the assessment of dental personnel, the indices and methods used can be applied to any group working within the disaster team. Results indicate that the increase in preparedness as a result of the exercise was highly significant. This paper was written by David Webb, Iain Pretty and David Sweet.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Home Page
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Introduction
Mass disasters represent one of the most challenging aspects of forensic dentistry. Many experts have called for mass disaster dental response teams to be prepared for the disaster challenge (1, 2). Authors report inadequacies in existing preparation methods with an emphasis on team integration, organisation, and the psychological and emotional effects of such work (3). Many studies have retrospectively reported errors that have been made in disaster situations, but few have addressed the issues proactively (3-8). This study addresses this hiatus in the literature. In order to provide a prepared team of dental members, a mock disaster exercise (Operation: DENT-ID) is conducted annually in Vancouver, Canada. This study analysed the effectiveness of this exercise in relation to team organisation, assessment of preparedness and the emotional and psychological issues.
Operation: DENT-ID
The training exercise was conducted over a one and one half day period, in association with the British Columbia Coroners Service and BC-FORT. The first afternoon was devoted to a lecture delivered by a guest speaker who had previously been involved in a mass disaster dental identification team. The following morning a mock mass disaster exercise was carried out. This was followed in the afternnon by extensive discussion and feedback. Twenty-nine dental personnel, each with varying degrees of disaster and identification experience, participated in the most recent exercise (April 1999). The group was split into three teams: antemortem, postmortem and comparison. Each team was organised by a team leader and a secondary leader. The team leaders, organisers and participants of the event are members of a provincial dental mass disaster response team.
The exercise simulated an airplane crash that required the identification of 10 individuals. Preserved human remains and antemortem dental records were available. Each of the teams processed their material as per a real disaster. Success was determined by the number of individuals identified at the end of the exercise. Each team was allocated a separate workspace and this was protected to ensure that "crossing the floor" (members of one group ‘crossing’ into the work space of another) was minimised. The role of each team was clearly defined.
The antemortem team was responsible for transcribing dental records received from dental practitioners on to standardised forms. The inherent problems of incomplete records, different tooth numbering systems and difficult-to-decipher notes were simulated. The postmortem team was responsible for the dental examination and charting of the found remains. Postmortem radiographs of the remains had been produced prior to the exercise and members of this group charted on to standardised forms. The production of postmortem radiographs was not included as part of the exercise as a portable x-ray unit was not available. Fragmented remains were included to replicate the condition of bodies likely to be encountered in a real disaster. The comparison team received the antemortem and postmortem standardised forms from the respective groups. Using laptop computers and the computer application WinID (Version 2; James McGivney, www.winid.com) possible matches were established and then the team compared the actual records to produce final conclusions. The use of computers to identify a relatively small number of remains was incorporated into the exercise to ensure that comparison team members were familiar with the operation of the system should its use be indicated in a larger disaster. Interaction between the groups was kept to a minimum and aspects of security and prevention of record "contamination" were all considered.
It was clear that the participation of all members in the afternoon feedback session was a crucial component of the exercise. Team leaders reported satisfaction with their team's performance and the success of the exercise.
Method
In order to determine accurately the success of the exercise several methods were employed. Data were collected during the mock scenario and immediately following the conclusion of the exercise. Collection methods included structured questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with key team members and participants. Observation of participants was carried out during the exercise to examine the team dynamics. This study assessed two main points: 1) team work within each of the three teams, and 2) preparedness of the whole group and individuals as assessed by a preparedness index.
Data were collected from the results of the questionnaires and analysed with information obtained from group observations and the semi-structured interviews. The interviews were conducted with the following individuals: a) each of the three team leaders, b) representatives from the Coroners service involved in the Provincial disaster plan and c) the guest speaker who had participated in a disaster involving a plane crash at sea.
Assessment of team work
The three teams were assessed using the Tuckman model for team performance (9). Within this model there are four terms used to describe a team’s development: forming, storming, norming and performing. Table I describes each of these identifiable stages. Figure I shows the questionnaire used to assess the team using this model. Figure 2 shows the preparedness index.
Assessment of preparedness
Preparedness was assessed using a preparedness index designed specifically for this study. Figure 2.
Results
The results of the study are shown in Tables II-IV. Table II contains the results of the team work assesment. It is important to note the closeness of the scores for the forming, norming and performing categories. Table III shows the preparedness score of each participant before and after the exercise. Table IV illustrates the mean differences in mean score for each assessed aspect of preparedness.
The interviews with the team leaders established the leaders' views on team performance and the overall success of the exericise. Interviews with other individuals related to the integration of the dental team into the larger mass disaster response and the realism of the simulated exercise. In total 26 correctly completed questionnaires were received from a total of 29 participants (90%).
Discussion
Team Development
The vast majority of the respondents in the three teams indicated that their teams had “performed” consistent with the expectations of the team leaders (Tuckman's fourth stage). See Table II. Equally, all respondents indicated that their teams were least like the volatile “storming” classification. Despite these apparently encouraging findings, caution must be exercised in relation to the closeness of the forming, norming and performing scores. The suggestion that this indicates no clear team perception is best explained by the ephemeral nature of the team itself (i.e. formed and disbanded during one day). The clearest team perception lay within the postmortem group, followed by the comparison group and then antemortem group. Interestingly, 7 out of 10 respondents within the postmortem group had not attended the previous year’s Operation: DENT-ID exercise and 3 of the 8 members of the comparison group had not. Only 1 out of 8 had not participated in the antemortem group. This result can be explained by the theory of “groupthink” where more cohesive groups (suggested by previous attendance and hence familiarity) are more concerned with achieving consensus than group decision making. Another factor is the unfamiliarity of participants with the antemortem process. Despite these concerns, all three teams demonstrated good group dynamics.
Preparedness
In terms of the efficacy of the exercise, (i.e. did the mock disaster increase the preparedness of the members?) a highly significant result was found. As part of the preparedness indices, 17 questions exploring both logistical and psychological preparedness were posed. As the index was issued before and after the exercise, it is possible to ascertain if participant preparedness changed as a result of attendance. With the exception of one participant, whose preparedness index remained unchanged, all participants indicated that their preparedness was greater after Operation: DENT-ID. See Table III. To test if this difference was statistically significant a paired samples t-test was employed (10). The highly significant result of t = -7.267, df = 25, p<0.001 was obtained. From this result we can conclude that there has been a highly significant increase in preparedness over the one and one half day exercise.
In order to highlight the benefit of this study further, it is important to assess the formative perspective (i.e. provide information on how the mock disaster exercise can be improved). This can be done without complicated statistical analysis, which is a strength of this user-friendly index. In order to identify areas of strength and weakness in the exercise each aspect of preparedness was isolated and compared. These results are shown in Table IV. In order to establish which aspects of preparedness could be improved, individual scores before and after the exercise were compared to see how much the mean scores changed. By doing this, the discrepancy of scores is restricted to a rating scale (i.e. between 1 and 4). By reviewing the data it is possible to elicit those aspects of preparedness that did not change significantly as a result of attending Operation: DENT-ID. The highest level of preparedness is a score of 4. It can be argued that any score of 3 or less should be examined, as this would tend to suggest a weakly-prepared aspect of the exercise.
Using these criteria the following areas of weakness were identified:
• Participants seem unprepared to leave offices and practices at short notice and for undetermined amounts of time
• Participants felt unaware of the psychological issues surrounding critical incident stress or post-traumatic stress disorder. They were not aware of the value of debriefing in order to address these issues. Participants also indicated that they would be unwilling to discuss the features of the disaster with their close family
• The exercise did not seem to provide sufficient information regarding primary literature pertaining to mass disasters
It is important to note that the preparedness index has not been validated. The index was developed by the authors based upon intuitive measures of preparedness for a mass disaster and the experience of one of the authors (DAW) with respect to psychological methods. Methods of validation for an index such as this are complex. The authors believe that the index represents a realistic measure. Further use of this index will confirm its validity in mass disaster assessment.
In summary the exercise should be regarded as a success. Team work was measured as effective and there was a highly significant increase in the preparedness of the participants as measured by the preparedness index. All interviews indicated a great deal of satisfaction with the exercise and with the abilities of those participating in it. The logistics of the exercise were smooth; a testament to the large volume of work that is required to stage such an exercise. The potential problems of this workload conflicting with dental practice responsibilities was illucidated during the team leaders' interviews.
The study identified areas of weakness that need to be addressed in order to increase the effectiveness of the exercise. One of the most pivotal areas of weakness was that of willingness to leave the workspace and support the identification effort. It can be argued that there is little point in training individuals who are ultimately not able to participate in an actual disaster. It appears that little can be done to address this point. During the exercise the importance of the identification team and the need to be available was emphasised repeatedly. Results of interviews highlighted that dentists were concerned about the financial implications of participating in a mass disaster. This area was addressed in the exercise but may need more reinforcement in the future. Those contemplating a similar program should be aware of this complication. A more radical solution is to select only those individuals who indicate their willingness to be involved prior to the exercise.
The second area of weakness pertained to the psychological issues. The preparedness data, in conjunction with interviews, showed that the participants felt that this area deserved more attention. The subject was covered in the exercise but the issue took second place to the larger implications of the exact duties of teams. Interviews with team leaders illicited differing opinions. One team leader felt that his responsibility was limited to the physical act of dental identifications and that other professionals should be responsible for the assessment of the mental well-being of his team members. Other opinions stated that the well-being of the group was of paramount importance to effective identifications and therefore was within their responsibilities as team leaders. All team leaders stated that more knowledge of the psychological issues would be useful. The issue of speaking to family members was raised specifically by the guest speaker who stated that involving those close around you was essential to ensure harmony both at the morgue and in the family environment. Interestingly, despite this, many of the participants did not feel that this is something that they felt prepared to do.
It is clear that more attention needs to be focused on the psychological aspects of mass disaster preparedness. The presence of actors exhibiting signs of post-traumatic stress disorder within teams and a psychologist trained in this area may help address this. The published literature on this subject is comprehensive and should be made available to the participants (11-19). Reference lists alone do not suffice. Certainly the psychological implications of mass casualty identification must be thoroughly addressed and this may be best achieved in small groups to enable open discussion. Interviews on this subject with participants recognised the value of the guest speaker whose candid and frank descriptions of the trauma of disaster involvement were highly valued.
Conclusions
A mock disaster can be a helpful tool in the training of dentists likely to be called to provide identification services in the event of mass casualties. Assessment of such exercises is essential to enable areas of strength and weakness to be identified and to assure authorities that the dental team is appropriately trained. Anecdotal evidence is helpful, but the use of properly structured questionnaires and interviews will enable accurate assessment. The authors encourage the use of mock disaster scenarios and of the measures provided in this paper to assess such exercises. The area of post-traumatic stress disorder must be carefully addressed, as well as the issue of commitment to the dental response team by the participant, including the financial impact that this may present.
Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr. Dave Hodges, Dr. Tom Routledge, Dr. Ian MacLachlan, and Coroners Chico Newell and Robert Stair for their assistance during this study. The authors extend their gratitude to Dr. Alan Hannam, Faculty of Dentistry, University of British Columbia for providing funding for this study. Dr. Iain A Pretty is supported by an educational grant from the Forensic Science Society (UK).
References
1. Morlang WM. Dentistry's vital role in disaster preparedness. J Calif Dent Assoc 1996;24(5):63-6.
2. Clark DH. An analysis of the value of forensic odontology in ten mass disasters. Int Dent J 1994;44(3):241-50.
3. Brannon RB, Kessler HP. Problems in mass disaster dental identification: a retrospective review. J Forensic Sci 1999;44(1):123-7.
4. Clark DH. The British experience in mass disaster dental identification. United Kingdom disasters. A historical review. Acta Med Leg Soc 1990;40:159-65.
5. Carpenter JP. Dental identification of plane crash victims. J N C Dent Soc 1968;51(1):9-12.
6. Harmeling BL, Schuh E, Humphreys HS. Dental identification of bodies in a major disaster. S C Dent J 1968;26(7):4-11.
7. Solheim T, van den Bos A. International disaster identification report. Investigative and dental aspects. Am J Forensic Med Pathol 1982;3(1):63-7.
8. Bell GL. Forensic odontology and mass disasters. N Y State Dent J 1989;55(3):25-7.
9. Tuckman B. Developmental sequence in small groups. Psych Bull 1965;63:384-99.
10. Bulman JS, Osborn JF. Statistics in dentistry. 1989, London: BDJ Books. Pages 34-9
11. Ursano RJ, Fullerton CS, Vance K, Kao TC. Post-traumatic stress disorder and identification in disaster workers. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156(3):353-9.
12. Turnbull G. Post-traumatic stress disorder. J R Soc Med 1999;92(3):152-3.
13. Simon RI. Chronic post-traumatic stress disorder: a review and checklist of factors influencing prognosis.
Harv Rev Psychiatry 1999;6(6):304-12.
14. Watts JR. Detecting people with PTSD following a disaster. Med J Aust 1994;160(5):312.
15. Laor N, Wolmer L, Wiener Z, Sharon O, Weizman R, Toren P, Ron S. Image vividness as a psychophysiological regulator in Post-traumatic stress disorder. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 1999;21(1):39-48.
16. Guerin EJ. Air disaster and post-traumatic stress disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156(8):1290-1.
17. Schutzwohl M, Maercker A. Effects of varying diagnostic criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder are endorsing the concept of partial PTSD. J Traum Str 1999;12(1):155-65
18. Butler DJ, Moffic HS, Turkal NW. Post-traumatic stress reactions following motor vehicle accidents. Am Fam Physician 1999;60(2):524-31.
19. Breslau N, Chilcoat HD, Kessler RC, Davis GC. Previous exposure to trauma and PTSD effects of subsequent trauma: results from the Detroit Area Survey of Trauma. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156(6):902-7.
Wednesday, April 15, 2009
Saturday, April 11, 2009
Flesh Eating Beetles
FLESH-EATING BEETLES
Ugh!! Bugs!! Why are we talking about beetles? Because the Forensics Lab uses dermestid beetles to "skeletonize" birds and mammals.
"Skeletonize" means to clean the bones of birds and mammals. The Lab does this for two reasons: for bones that are submitted as evidence, and for bones that will become part of the Lab's standards collection. This standards collection is used by the scientists as reference material to identify the bones that are submitted to the Lab as evidence in wildlife law enforcement investigations.
What do Dermestids Eat?
Dermestids, or flesh-eating beetles (family Dermestidae) are akin to carpet beetles — they will infest and eat any dried organic matter: old books, furs, taxidermied mounts, woolens, carpets, artifacts of wood or feathers, etc. Therefore, the colony at the Lab is separated from other materials that they could destroy.
The beetles close-up. Credit: USFWS
How Are the Beetles Contained?
The Lab grows its colony of beetles in a large, custom-made plexiglas box with a tight- fitting screen lid. There are several chambers within this box to separate different types of bones. Cotton batting lines the bottom of the container, to give the larvae a burrowable substrate in which to pupate and to wick away any spilled water to help avoid fungal growth. Small bowls of water are placed within the container to raise the humidity and as a source of water for the beetles. Additional cotton or poly fill batting is put in each bowl to keep the beetles from drowning.
The bugs like it warm, moist and dark. To raise the humidity, the colony is covered with paper towels that are moistened daily. An additional benefit of covering the colony with moist paper towels is to simulate the skin of an animal, so that the colony lives in conditions that mimic its natural environment.
For extra protection, there is a perimeter ring of borax around the colony to help contain them. The borax scratches the beetles exoskeleton, and they quickly die.
Life Cycle
Let's look at their life cycle. It all begins when the adults lay eggs. The eggs hatch either in meat or close to it. These hatchlings are called larvae. The larvae go through at least six different molting stages or instars. After the last instar, the larvae become pupae and they burrow holes in the batting to pupate. They hatch as adults and thus begin the cycle all over again.
The Process of Skeletonizing
Before a carcass is put into the colony, it is frozen for 72 hours to prevent other insects from infecting the colony. And again, when the bugs' work is complete, everything that is left of the carcass is frozen to prevent any beetles from escaping and eating something else in the Lab.
Beetles skeletonizing a carcass. Credit: USFWS
Once a carcass has been given to the colony, it usually takes about a week to be skeletonized if the colony is active. What determines the activity level of the colony is how much food they have been receiving. The more food, the more active the colony will be.
When a carcass is put into the beetle bin, it must be closely monitored. The first thing that the beetles eat is the flesh. But, if left in with the colony, the beetles will continue on to the keratin (hair, nails and hoofs or horns) which can destroy the specimen. Once the bones are removed from the colony, they are frozen and then soaked in either soapy water or in ammonia water to retard mold. They are then air or sun dried thoroughly before being labeled and stored.
Beetles eating flesh. Credit: USFWS
The colony is used to process bones for both the standards collection and for evidence. When evidence is in the bug chamber, it is kept under lock and key, and only the Lab scientist that is working on that case has the keys. In this case, that scientist would be the one who does the daily tending of the colony. The Forensic Laboratory receives evidence about once a month that needs to be skeletonized. Examples of evidence that might need to be skeletonized are when 1) an elk pelvis needs to be identified as either male or female; 2) the trunk of a duck, with no head or feet and few feathers, needs to be identified as either a Teal or a Mallard; 3) a bear paw with skin and rotten meat needs to identified as either a grizzly or a black bear. In all of these cases, the scientist would compare the skeletonized bones of the evidence with the standards collection to make these identifications.
Who Else Has Beetle Colonies?
The Forensic Lab is not the only agency that has a dermestid beetle colony. Most museums maintain them. In addition, some schools with natural history departments and some zoos with educational departments will have a beetle colony.
The Lab's beetle colony was begun in 1989 and patterned after an existing colony at the Smithsonian Museum. Through the years, the Lab's colony has been used to spawn five or six new colonies at different facilities throughout the United States.
Incredibal Forensic Story
INCREDIBLE STORIES
"Royal Wool" of the Tibetan Antelope
The Forensics Lab, like any other crime lab, deals with many cases that we consider routine. For our analysts, identifying elk meat by its DNA, or a golden eagle feather by its appearance, or lifting a fingerprint from a gunstock, are all in a day’s work. But every year or two, we also face entirely novel challenges that require us to develop new techniques or new clues for species identification. One such challenge involved the exotic fabric called “shahtoosh.”
The hair of the Tibetan Antelope is so fine that a shawl of this fabric can be pulled through a man’s ring; thus, they are sometimes called “ring shawls.” Credit: USFWS
Shahtoosh is woven from the warm, dense underfur of the Tibetan antelope, or chiru (Pantholops hodgsonii). This graceful antelope inhabits one of the most forbidding environments on earth, the high, wind-swept Tibetan plateau. In the bitterly cold winters, chiru grow a wooly coat, which is shed in the spring. For generations, Himalayan weavers have gathered clumps of this shed wool — the finest produced by any mammal — and woven it into incredibly light-weight fabric shawls that were reserved for the use of royalty. Thus, the fabric was called shahtoosh, which means “royal wool.” Protected by the remoteness of their range, and by their speed and sharp eyes, Tibetan antelope populations were safe from human threats.
The Tibetan Antelope is protected by both the U.S. Endangered Species Act and at the highest level by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Credit: USFWS
All that changed with the Chinese occupation of Tibet, which brought roads and Kalashnikov rifles into the range of the chiru. Suddenly, whole herds could be run down with vehicles and slaughtered. Renowned conservationist George Schaller discovered that Tibetan antelope populations were crashing, and brought world attention to the connection between trade in shahtoosh and the plight of this unique species. The Tibetan antelope is now listed on the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) and protected at the highest level by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). All international trade in shahtoosh is prohibited. Tibetan antelope cannot be kept alive in captivity, and so the fabric comes only from animals which have been killed. Nevertheless, demand for this luxury fabric remains high, with shahtoosh shawls commanding prices of thousands of dollars apiece.
To enforce the ban on shahtoosh, it is of course necessary to be able to identify the fabric. When wildlife law enforcement seized shipments of shahtoosh shawls, these were invariably claimed to be “pashmina” or “shahmina,” legal fabrics woven from the wool of cashmere goats, often blended with silk. Microscopic comparisons of the fine underfur of the Tibetan antelope and the cashmere goat unfortunately revealed no clear diagnostic differences. The antelope hairs were slightly finer, but this difference was too subtle to be useful in the law enforcement context.
Microscopic examination of the Tibetan antelope guard hair shows a shaft filled with large, rounded cells. Credit: USFWS
At this point, Lab mammalogist and hair identification expert Bonnie Yates had an inspiration. What about the appearance of the outer “guard hairs,” she wondered. Since the fabric itself is woven from the underfur, the guard hairs from the animal’s outer coat were considered to be an undesirable contaminant and were typically ignored by fabric experts. With her biological perspective, Bonnie reasoned that these large guard hairs – always present in small amounts in any wool fabric – might reveal species-diagnostic characters missing in the finer underfur. Microscopic examination quickly proved her hunch to be correct. The shafts of Tibetan antelope guard hairs were completely filled with large, rounded cells. The shaft thus had the appearance of a clear tube filled with tightly-packed pebbles. The shaft of a cashmere goat guard hair, in contrast, was much smaller in diameter and had a dark, solid-appearing core which did not fill the shaft.
Lab mammalogist and hair identification expert Bonnie Yates discovered how to scientifically identify the Tibetan antelope hair. Credit: USFWS
Using these characters, Bonnie was able to prove that suspect shawls indeed contained the wool of the endangered Tibetan antelope, leading to successful prosecution of shahtoosh cases in the U.S., England, and Asia. Bonnie herself has traveled to Thailand to assist the Royal Thai Police in a major shahtoosh case, and to testify at a trial in Hong Kong where over a million dollars worth of shahtoosh shawls had been seized.
This is just one example of how Forensics Lab scientists combine their biological insight with laboratory techniques to expand the frontiers of wildlife forensics.
For detailed information on identifying shahtoosh shawls, please see the Lab publication Identification Guidelines for Shahtoosh and Pashmina (PDF 3,377 KB).
National Wildlife Forensics Lab
Examples of evidence items that are sent to us for examination:
blood samples (ideally, in a fresh or dried condition)
tissue samples (same as above, only include frozen)
whole carcasses (same as the above, except we're rarely that lucky)
bones
teeth
claws
talons
tusks
hair
hides
furs
feathers
leather goods (purses, shoes, boots...)
poisons
pesticides
stomach contents (uh huh)
projectiles (bullets, arrows...)
weapons (rifles, bows, traps....)
Asian medicinals (rhino horn pills, tiger bone juice...)
And pretty much anything else you might imagine that could have come from (or been made from) an animal.
blood samples (ideally, in a fresh or dried condition)
tissue samples (same as above, only include frozen)
whole carcasses (same as the above, except we're rarely that lucky)
bones
teeth
claws
talons
tusks
hair
hides
furs
feathers
leather goods (purses, shoes, boots...)
poisons
pesticides
stomach contents (uh huh)
projectiles (bullets, arrows...)
weapons (rifles, bows, traps....)
Asian medicinals (rhino horn pills, tiger bone juice...)
And pretty much anything else you might imagine that could have come from (or been made from) an animal.
Monday, March 23, 2009
Blow Flies & Beetles
Information about the development and appearance of some common forensically important insects.
Go directly to the Blow flies or Beetles.
Insects have existed on earth for about 250 million years; comparatively humans have existed for about 300,000 years. Such an enormous amount of time has allowed insects to attain a wide diversity in both form and development. There are currently about 700,000 described species and it is estimated that there may be more than 10 million species of insects yet to be described. Some insects have evolved a gradual or "paurometabolous" development in which there is an egg that hatches into an immature or "nymph", which resembles the adult form, but is smaller and lacks wings. In the forensically important insects, this is best represented by the cockroaches. However, most forensically important insects undergo a complete or "holometabolous" development. There is an egg stage (except for a few insects such as the flesh flies that deposit living larvae) which hatches into a larval form and undergoes a stepwise or incremental growth. This pattern is caused by the successive molts (shedding of the outer skin that has become too small) that the larva must undergo before it finally enters the inactive pupal stage. The pupa is simply the hardened outer skin of the last larval stage and the adult will develop inside of this protective skin.
Blow flies
In the insects that undergo complete development, the larval stages appear quite different from the adult form. The larvae of flies (order Diptera) that are commonly recovered from decomposing human remains lack functional legs, and the body of many species appears cream colored, soft-bodied, and quite "maggot-like". For a picture of some of the maggots commonly found on human cadavers click here. Once the larva or "maggot" is through feeding it will migrate away from the corpse in order to find a suitable site to form the pupal stage. The pupae of blow flies are often overlooked, as they closely resemble rat droppings or the egg case of cockroaches. The pupal stage is an extremely important stage to the forensic entomologist and a thorough search should be made for the presence of pupae at any death scene. If the adult insect has not emerged, the pupa will appear featureless and rounded on both ends. For a picture of a blow fly pupa click here. If the adult insect has emerged, one end will appear as if it has been cut off, and the hollow interior will be revealed. For a picture of an adult emerging from the puparium click here. Most adult blow flies appear a metallic green or blue and are easily recognizable. For a picture of two common adult blow flies click here.
Beetles
The beetles (order Coleoptera) are one of the largest groups of animals and they also undergo complete development. Because of their development the larvae appear very different from the adult form. Although the larvae or "maggots" of a large number of blow fly species may look almost identical; the larvae of beetles may look very different from one species to the next. Beetle larvae recovered from corpses can be easily differentiated from maggots as they have 3 pairs of legs and the maggots found on decomposing remains will not have any legs. Once a larva as been identified as that of a beetle, further field identification can be accomplished because of the wide diversity of larval forms. The bodies of beetle larvae may range from almost white, robust, and hairless to dark brown, slender, and quite hairy. Others may appear almost black and have armored plates on their back. For a picture of some of the most common beetle larvae click here. Although the number and appearance of adult beetles that can be found on human remains is much too diverse to show even a representative sample, two of the most common carrion beetles can be viewed by clicking here.
Go directly to the Blow flies or Beetles.
Insects have existed on earth for about 250 million years; comparatively humans have existed for about 300,000 years. Such an enormous amount of time has allowed insects to attain a wide diversity in both form and development. There are currently about 700,000 described species and it is estimated that there may be more than 10 million species of insects yet to be described. Some insects have evolved a gradual or "paurometabolous" development in which there is an egg that hatches into an immature or "nymph", which resembles the adult form, but is smaller and lacks wings. In the forensically important insects, this is best represented by the cockroaches. However, most forensically important insects undergo a complete or "holometabolous" development. There is an egg stage (except for a few insects such as the flesh flies that deposit living larvae) which hatches into a larval form and undergoes a stepwise or incremental growth. This pattern is caused by the successive molts (shedding of the outer skin that has become too small) that the larva must undergo before it finally enters the inactive pupal stage. The pupa is simply the hardened outer skin of the last larval stage and the adult will develop inside of this protective skin.
Blow flies
In the insects that undergo complete development, the larval stages appear quite different from the adult form. The larvae of flies (order Diptera) that are commonly recovered from decomposing human remains lack functional legs, and the body of many species appears cream colored, soft-bodied, and quite "maggot-like". For a picture of some of the maggots commonly found on human cadavers click here. Once the larva or "maggot" is through feeding it will migrate away from the corpse in order to find a suitable site to form the pupal stage. The pupae of blow flies are often overlooked, as they closely resemble rat droppings or the egg case of cockroaches. The pupal stage is an extremely important stage to the forensic entomologist and a thorough search should be made for the presence of pupae at any death scene. If the adult insect has not emerged, the pupa will appear featureless and rounded on both ends. For a picture of a blow fly pupa click here. If the adult insect has emerged, one end will appear as if it has been cut off, and the hollow interior will be revealed. For a picture of an adult emerging from the puparium click here. Most adult blow flies appear a metallic green or blue and are easily recognizable. For a picture of two common adult blow flies click here.
Beetles
The beetles (order Coleoptera) are one of the largest groups of animals and they also undergo complete development. Because of their development the larvae appear very different from the adult form. Although the larvae or "maggots" of a large number of blow fly species may look almost identical; the larvae of beetles may look very different from one species to the next. Beetle larvae recovered from corpses can be easily differentiated from maggots as they have 3 pairs of legs and the maggots found on decomposing remains will not have any legs. Once a larva as been identified as that of a beetle, further field identification can be accomplished because of the wide diversity of larval forms. The bodies of beetle larvae may range from almost white, robust, and hairless to dark brown, slender, and quite hairy. Others may appear almost black and have armored plates on their back. For a picture of some of the most common beetle larvae click here. Although the number and appearance of adult beetles that can be found on human remains is much too diverse to show even a representative sample, two of the most common carrion beetles can be viewed by clicking here.
Forensics and Entomology
Introduction
This site was created in order to assist in the education of crime scene technicians, homicide investigators, coroners, medical examiners, and others involved in the death investigation process. A basic knowledge of the general appearance of insect of forensic importance, and a basic understanding of the proper methods for their collection, will allow investigators to make accurate and representative collections from the death scene. Enhanced knowledge on the behalf of law enforcement officials will provide for better communication between police, medical examiners, coroners, and forensic entomologists. Hopefully, improved communication will promote more frequent use of entomological resources, and more accurate collection of entomological evidence. This will allow forensic entomologists to be more precise in their statements and determinations, particularly in the area of postmortem interval estimations. Those involved in crime scene analysis and the death investigation process are encouraged to use this site as a reference resource to enhance their investigation efforts. It is impossible to determine when insect evidence my prove useful in a death investigation. Therefore, all law enforcement agencies should assemble a "Entomological Evidence Collection Kit" so that they are prepared in the event entomological evidence is encountered during any crime scene investigation.
If you would like to contact a Board Certified Forensic Entomologist (Click Here).
This site was created in order to assist in the education of crime scene technicians, homicide investigators, coroners, medical examiners, and others involved in the death investigation process. A basic knowledge of the general appearance of insect of forensic importance, and a basic understanding of the proper methods for their collection, will allow investigators to make accurate and representative collections from the death scene. Enhanced knowledge on the behalf of law enforcement officials will provide for better communication between police, medical examiners, coroners, and forensic entomologists. Hopefully, improved communication will promote more frequent use of entomological resources, and more accurate collection of entomological evidence. This will allow forensic entomologists to be more precise in their statements and determinations, particularly in the area of postmortem interval estimations. Those involved in crime scene analysis and the death investigation process are encouraged to use this site as a reference resource to enhance their investigation efforts. It is impossible to determine when insect evidence my prove useful in a death investigation. Therefore, all law enforcement agencies should assemble a "Entomological Evidence Collection Kit" so that they are prepared in the event entomological evidence is encountered during any crime scene investigation.
If you would like to contact a Board Certified Forensic Entomologist (Click Here).
AAA Statement on Race
ABOUT THE PROJECT
AAA's Statement on Race
AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION STATEMENT ON "RACE" (May 17, 1998)
The following statement was adopted by the Executive Board of the American Anthropological Association, acting on a draft prepared by a committee of representative American anthropologists. It does not reflect a consensus of all members of the AAA, as individuals vary in their approaches to the study of "race." We believe that it represents generally the contemporary thinking and scholarly positions of a majority of anthropologists.
In the United States both scholars and the general public have been conditioned to viewing human races as natural and separate divisions within the human species based on visible physical differences. With the vast expansion of scientific knowledge in this century, however, it has become clear that human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups. Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation, about 94%, lies within so-called racial groups. Conventional geographic "racial" groupings differ from one another only in about 6% of their genes. This means that there is greater variation within "racial" groups than between them. In neighboring populations there is much overlapping of genes and their phenotypic (physical) expressions. Throughout history whenever different groups have come into contact, they have interbred. The continued sharing of genetic materials has maintained all of humankind as a single species.
Physical variations in any given trait tend to occur gradually rather than abruptly over geographic areas. And because physical traits are inherited independently of one another, knowing the range of one trait does not predict the presence of others. For example, skin color varies largely from light in the temperate areas in the north to dark in the tropical areas in the south; its intensity is not related to nose shape or hair texture. Dark skin may be associated with frizzy or kinky hair or curly or wavy or straight hair, all of which are found among different indigenous peoples in tropical regions. These facts render any attempt to establish lines of division among biological populations both arbitrary and subjective.
Historical research has shown that the idea of "race" has always carried more meanings than mere physical differences; indeed, physical variations in the human species have no meaning except the social ones that humans put on them. Today scholars in many fields argue that "race" as it is understood in the United States of America was a social mechanism invented during the 18th century to refer to those populations brought together in colonial America: the English and other European settlers, the conquered Indian peoples, and those peoples of Africa brought in to provide slave labor.
From its inception, this modern concept of "race" was modeled after an ancient theorem of the Great Chain of Being, which posited natural categories on a hierarchy established by God or nature. Thus "race" was a mode of classification linked specifically to peoples in the colonial situation. It subsumed a growing ideology of inequality devised to rationalize European attitudes and treatment of the conquered and enslaved peoples. Proponents of slavery in particular during the 19th century used "race" to justify the retention of slavery. The ideology magnified the differences among Europeans, Africans, and Indians, established a rigid hierarchy of socially exclusive categories underscored and bolstered unequal rank and status differences, and provided the rationalization that the inequality was natural or God-given. The different physical traits of African-Americans and Indians became markers or symbols of their status differences.
As they were constructing US society, leaders among European-Americans fabricated the cultural/behavioral characteristics associated with each "race," linking superior traits with Europeans and negative and inferior ones to blacks and Indians. Numerous arbitrary and fictitious beliefs about the different peoples were institutionalized and deeply embedded in American thought.
Early in the 19th century the growing fields of science began to reflect the public consciousness about human differences. Differences among the "racial" categories were projected to their greatest extreme when the argument was posed that Africans, Indians, and Europeans were separate species, with Africans the least human and closer taxonomically to apes.
Ultimately "race" as an ideology about human differences was subsequently spread to other areas of the world. It became a strategy for dividing, ranking, and controlling colonized people used by colonial powers everywhere. But it was not limited to the colonial situation. In the latter part of the 19th century it was employed by Europeans to rank one another and to justify social, economic, and political inequalities among their peoples. During World War II, the Nazis under Adolf Hitler enjoined the expanded ideology of "race" and "racial" differences and took them to a logical end: the extermination of 11 million people of "inferior races" (e.g., Jews, Gypsies, Africans, homosexuals, and so forth) and other unspeakable brutalities of the Holocaust.
"Race" thus evolved as a worldview, a body of prejudgments that distorts our ideas about human differences and group behavior. Racial beliefs constitute myths about the diversity in the human species and about the abilities and behavior of people homogenized into "racial" categories. The myths fused behavior and physical features together in the public mind, impeding our comprehension of both biological variations and cultural behavior, implying that both are genetically determined. Racial myths bear no relationship to the reality of human capabilities or behavior. Scientists today find that reliance on such folk beliefs about human differences in research has led to countless errors.
At the end of the 20th century, we now understand that human cultural behavior is learned, conditioned into infants beginning at birth, and always subject to modification. No human is born with a built-in culture or language. Our temperaments, dispositions, and personalities, regardless of genetic propensities, are developed within sets of meanings and values that we call "culture." Studies of infant and early childhood learning and behavior attest to the reality of our cultures in forming who we are.
It is a basic tenet of anthropological knowledge that all normal human beings have the capacity to learn any cultural behavior. The American experience with immigrants from hundreds of different language and cultural backgrounds who have acquired some version of American culture traits and behavior is the clearest evidence of this fact. Moreover, people of all physical variations have learned different cultural behaviors and continue to do so as modern transportation moves millions of immigrants around the world.
How people have been accepted and treated within the context of a given society or culture has a direct impact on how they perform in that society. The "racial" worldview was invented to assign some groups to perpetual low status, while others were permitted access to privilege, power, and wealth. The tragedy in the United States has been that the policies and practices stemming from this worldview succeeded all too well in constructing unequal populations among Europeans, Native Americans, and peoples of African descent. Given what we know about the capacity of normal humans to achieve and function within any culture, we conclude that present-day inequalities between so-called "racial" groups are not consequences of their biological inheritance but products of historical and contemporary social, economic, educational, and political circumstances.
[Note: For further information on human biological variations, see the statement prepared and issued by the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, 1996 (AJPA 101:569-570).]
AAA POSITION PAPER ON "RACE": COMMENTS?
As a result of public confusion about the meaning of "race," claims as to major biological differences among "races" continue to be advanced. Stemming from past AAA actions designed to address public misconceptions on race and intelligence, the need was apparent for a clear AAA statement on the biology and politics of race that would be educational and informational. Rather than wait for each spurious claim to be raised, the AAA Executive Board determined that the Association should prepare a statement for approval by the Association and elicit member input.
Commissioned by the Executive Board of the American Anthropological Association, a position paper on race was authored by Audrey Smedley (Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview, 1993) and thrice reviewed by a working group of prominent anthropologists: George Armelagos, Michael Blakey, C. Loring Brace, Alan Goodman, Faye Harrison, Jonathan Marks, Yolanda Moses, and Carol Mukhopadhyay. A draft of the current paper was published in the September 1997 Anthropology Newsletter and posted ont the AAA website http://www.aaanet.org for a number of months, and member comments were requested. While Smedley assumed authorship of the final draft, she received comments not only from the working group but also from the AAA membership and other interested readers. The paper above was adopted by the AAA Executive Board on May 17, 1998, as an official statement of AAA's position on "race."
As the paper is considered a living statement, AAA members', other anthropologists', and public comments are invited. Your comments may be sent via mail or e-mail to Peggy Overbey, Director of Government Relations, American Anthropological Association, 4350 N. Fairfax Dr., Suite 640, Arlington, VA 22201.
AAA's Statement on Race
AMERICAN ANTHROPOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION STATEMENT ON "RACE" (May 17, 1998)
The following statement was adopted by the Executive Board of the American Anthropological Association, acting on a draft prepared by a committee of representative American anthropologists. It does not reflect a consensus of all members of the AAA, as individuals vary in their approaches to the study of "race." We believe that it represents generally the contemporary thinking and scholarly positions of a majority of anthropologists.
In the United States both scholars and the general public have been conditioned to viewing human races as natural and separate divisions within the human species based on visible physical differences. With the vast expansion of scientific knowledge in this century, however, it has become clear that human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups. Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation, about 94%, lies within so-called racial groups. Conventional geographic "racial" groupings differ from one another only in about 6% of their genes. This means that there is greater variation within "racial" groups than between them. In neighboring populations there is much overlapping of genes and their phenotypic (physical) expressions. Throughout history whenever different groups have come into contact, they have interbred. The continued sharing of genetic materials has maintained all of humankind as a single species.
Physical variations in any given trait tend to occur gradually rather than abruptly over geographic areas. And because physical traits are inherited independently of one another, knowing the range of one trait does not predict the presence of others. For example, skin color varies largely from light in the temperate areas in the north to dark in the tropical areas in the south; its intensity is not related to nose shape or hair texture. Dark skin may be associated with frizzy or kinky hair or curly or wavy or straight hair, all of which are found among different indigenous peoples in tropical regions. These facts render any attempt to establish lines of division among biological populations both arbitrary and subjective.
Historical research has shown that the idea of "race" has always carried more meanings than mere physical differences; indeed, physical variations in the human species have no meaning except the social ones that humans put on them. Today scholars in many fields argue that "race" as it is understood in the United States of America was a social mechanism invented during the 18th century to refer to those populations brought together in colonial America: the English and other European settlers, the conquered Indian peoples, and those peoples of Africa brought in to provide slave labor.
From its inception, this modern concept of "race" was modeled after an ancient theorem of the Great Chain of Being, which posited natural categories on a hierarchy established by God or nature. Thus "race" was a mode of classification linked specifically to peoples in the colonial situation. It subsumed a growing ideology of inequality devised to rationalize European attitudes and treatment of the conquered and enslaved peoples. Proponents of slavery in particular during the 19th century used "race" to justify the retention of slavery. The ideology magnified the differences among Europeans, Africans, and Indians, established a rigid hierarchy of socially exclusive categories underscored and bolstered unequal rank and status differences, and provided the rationalization that the inequality was natural or God-given. The different physical traits of African-Americans and Indians became markers or symbols of their status differences.
As they were constructing US society, leaders among European-Americans fabricated the cultural/behavioral characteristics associated with each "race," linking superior traits with Europeans and negative and inferior ones to blacks and Indians. Numerous arbitrary and fictitious beliefs about the different peoples were institutionalized and deeply embedded in American thought.
Early in the 19th century the growing fields of science began to reflect the public consciousness about human differences. Differences among the "racial" categories were projected to their greatest extreme when the argument was posed that Africans, Indians, and Europeans were separate species, with Africans the least human and closer taxonomically to apes.
Ultimately "race" as an ideology about human differences was subsequently spread to other areas of the world. It became a strategy for dividing, ranking, and controlling colonized people used by colonial powers everywhere. But it was not limited to the colonial situation. In the latter part of the 19th century it was employed by Europeans to rank one another and to justify social, economic, and political inequalities among their peoples. During World War II, the Nazis under Adolf Hitler enjoined the expanded ideology of "race" and "racial" differences and took them to a logical end: the extermination of 11 million people of "inferior races" (e.g., Jews, Gypsies, Africans, homosexuals, and so forth) and other unspeakable brutalities of the Holocaust.
"Race" thus evolved as a worldview, a body of prejudgments that distorts our ideas about human differences and group behavior. Racial beliefs constitute myths about the diversity in the human species and about the abilities and behavior of people homogenized into "racial" categories. The myths fused behavior and physical features together in the public mind, impeding our comprehension of both biological variations and cultural behavior, implying that both are genetically determined. Racial myths bear no relationship to the reality of human capabilities or behavior. Scientists today find that reliance on such folk beliefs about human differences in research has led to countless errors.
At the end of the 20th century, we now understand that human cultural behavior is learned, conditioned into infants beginning at birth, and always subject to modification. No human is born with a built-in culture or language. Our temperaments, dispositions, and personalities, regardless of genetic propensities, are developed within sets of meanings and values that we call "culture." Studies of infant and early childhood learning and behavior attest to the reality of our cultures in forming who we are.
It is a basic tenet of anthropological knowledge that all normal human beings have the capacity to learn any cultural behavior. The American experience with immigrants from hundreds of different language and cultural backgrounds who have acquired some version of American culture traits and behavior is the clearest evidence of this fact. Moreover, people of all physical variations have learned different cultural behaviors and continue to do so as modern transportation moves millions of immigrants around the world.
How people have been accepted and treated within the context of a given society or culture has a direct impact on how they perform in that society. The "racial" worldview was invented to assign some groups to perpetual low status, while others were permitted access to privilege, power, and wealth. The tragedy in the United States has been that the policies and practices stemming from this worldview succeeded all too well in constructing unequal populations among Europeans, Native Americans, and peoples of African descent. Given what we know about the capacity of normal humans to achieve and function within any culture, we conclude that present-day inequalities between so-called "racial" groups are not consequences of their biological inheritance but products of historical and contemporary social, economic, educational, and political circumstances.
[Note: For further information on human biological variations, see the statement prepared and issued by the American Association of Physical Anthropologists, 1996 (AJPA 101:569-570).]
AAA POSITION PAPER ON "RACE": COMMENTS?
As a result of public confusion about the meaning of "race," claims as to major biological differences among "races" continue to be advanced. Stemming from past AAA actions designed to address public misconceptions on race and intelligence, the need was apparent for a clear AAA statement on the biology and politics of race that would be educational and informational. Rather than wait for each spurious claim to be raised, the AAA Executive Board determined that the Association should prepare a statement for approval by the Association and elicit member input.
Commissioned by the Executive Board of the American Anthropological Association, a position paper on race was authored by Audrey Smedley (Race in North America: Origin and Evolution of a Worldview, 1993) and thrice reviewed by a working group of prominent anthropologists: George Armelagos, Michael Blakey, C. Loring Brace, Alan Goodman, Faye Harrison, Jonathan Marks, Yolanda Moses, and Carol Mukhopadhyay. A draft of the current paper was published in the September 1997 Anthropology Newsletter and posted ont the AAA website http://www.aaanet.org for a number of months, and member comments were requested. While Smedley assumed authorship of the final draft, she received comments not only from the working group but also from the AAA membership and other interested readers. The paper above was adopted by the AAA Executive Board on May 17, 1998, as an official statement of AAA's position on "race."
As the paper is considered a living statement, AAA members', other anthropologists', and public comments are invited. Your comments may be sent via mail or e-mail to Peggy Overbey, Director of Government Relations, American Anthropological Association, 4350 N. Fairfax Dr., Suite 640, Arlington, VA 22201.
Latent Print Photography
Minutiæ Issue #46
Latent Print Photography - Pat A. Wertheim
This article is the fifth in a comprehensive series of articles on latent print development techniques written by Pat A. Wertheim, Director of Training for Forensic Identification Training Seminars, Ltd. Watch for future articles in each issue of Minutiæ and save these issues in a binder to compile a manual of fingerprint development techniques.
In the early days of latent print science, clear adhesive tape had not yet been invented and the only way to record a latent print was by photography. Of course, the 35mm SLR camera had not been invented, either, and the camera of the day was the 4" x 5" sheet film camera. Because of the training required to use those old cameras, it was far easier to hire a trained photographer and teach him latent prints than to hire someone who knew neither fingerprints nor photography. Even though black and white was the only film available, colored powders were selected to provide maximum contrast with the background on which the latent was developed, and colored filters were used to enhance that contrast. Excellent images resulted. Latent print photography by those standards is all but a lost art.
Large format, 4" x 5" cameras are still used in most major fingerprint laboratories, the Polaroid MP-4 being the most common camera of this type in use today. Although the MP-4, or any other 4" x 5" camera, is capable of refined fingerprint photography techniques that are difficult with a smaller format 35mm, some of these techniques may actually be used with a 35mm with a little effort and practice. One point to keep in mind, however, is that frequently, fingerprint photography requires the use of light in ways not used, or even avoided, in other types of photography. The following three methods may be used with either the large format cameras or small format cameras. With a 4" x 5" camera, pictures would be taken at 1-to-1 scale. With a 35mm, they should be taken with the closest focal range possible and the smallest ƒ/stop to maximize depth of field, using long exposure times and focusing by moving the camera closer or farther from the object as needed for correct focus. As much as possible, a 90° angle should be maintained between the camera direction and the surface being photographed. Neither type camera should be hand held for fingerprint photography, but must be mounted firmly on a copy stand or sturdy tripod.
The most common method used is photography by "direct light." This method of fingerprint photography is used for fingerprints of good contrast plainly visible to the naked eye. The camera is aimed straight at the fingerprint with one or more light sources shining from about a 45° angle. In reality, this is simply normal photography, the same way you would photograph people or scenes.
The second most common type of fingerprint photography is with "direct reflected light." This method is used for prints that you can see only by manipulating the surface to catch the glare of some light source. The camera is aimed at the surface in a manner to catch the fingerprint image highlighted in the glare. This method is especially good on perfectly flat, shiny surfaces. For example, it works very well on plastic garbage bags after glue fuming when the fingerprints have not come up in well-developed white prints. Stretch the area of plastic with a print tightly over a beaker or end of a can to hold it flat, securing the plastic firmly with a rubber band to keep it stretched. Focus down on the print, using an overhead ceiling light to provide the necessary glare to highlight the print.
The third method is with the use of what might be described as "oblique transmitted light." This method is particularly good for photographing glue-fumed prints on clear plastic film such as cling wrap or plastic baggies. Stretch the clear plastic material over a glass beaker or wide mouth jar with the print centered over the opening, again using a rubber band to hold it in place. Cut out some various sized circles of black paper, from 1" diameter to 4" diameter. If a light table is available, place an appropriately sized black circle on the table under the beaker, so that the light is blocked from the print itself in the view of the camera. This will produce a crisp white fingerprint on a black background. If no light table is available, some experimentation and imagination may be required to figure out how to get the light source to shine through the plastic material with the black background under the print, but the results will be worth the effort.
In the next issue of Minutiæ, Pat will write about using iodine and silver nitrate to develop latent prints on porous surfaces.
Latent Print Photography - Pat A. Wertheim
This article is the fifth in a comprehensive series of articles on latent print development techniques written by Pat A. Wertheim, Director of Training for Forensic Identification Training Seminars, Ltd. Watch for future articles in each issue of Minutiæ and save these issues in a binder to compile a manual of fingerprint development techniques.
In the early days of latent print science, clear adhesive tape had not yet been invented and the only way to record a latent print was by photography. Of course, the 35mm SLR camera had not been invented, either, and the camera of the day was the 4" x 5" sheet film camera. Because of the training required to use those old cameras, it was far easier to hire a trained photographer and teach him latent prints than to hire someone who knew neither fingerprints nor photography. Even though black and white was the only film available, colored powders were selected to provide maximum contrast with the background on which the latent was developed, and colored filters were used to enhance that contrast. Excellent images resulted. Latent print photography by those standards is all but a lost art.
Large format, 4" x 5" cameras are still used in most major fingerprint laboratories, the Polaroid MP-4 being the most common camera of this type in use today. Although the MP-4, or any other 4" x 5" camera, is capable of refined fingerprint photography techniques that are difficult with a smaller format 35mm, some of these techniques may actually be used with a 35mm with a little effort and practice. One point to keep in mind, however, is that frequently, fingerprint photography requires the use of light in ways not used, or even avoided, in other types of photography. The following three methods may be used with either the large format cameras or small format cameras. With a 4" x 5" camera, pictures would be taken at 1-to-1 scale. With a 35mm, they should be taken with the closest focal range possible and the smallest ƒ/stop to maximize depth of field, using long exposure times and focusing by moving the camera closer or farther from the object as needed for correct focus. As much as possible, a 90° angle should be maintained between the camera direction and the surface being photographed. Neither type camera should be hand held for fingerprint photography, but must be mounted firmly on a copy stand or sturdy tripod.
The most common method used is photography by "direct light." This method of fingerprint photography is used for fingerprints of good contrast plainly visible to the naked eye. The camera is aimed straight at the fingerprint with one or more light sources shining from about a 45° angle. In reality, this is simply normal photography, the same way you would photograph people or scenes.
The second most common type of fingerprint photography is with "direct reflected light." This method is used for prints that you can see only by manipulating the surface to catch the glare of some light source. The camera is aimed at the surface in a manner to catch the fingerprint image highlighted in the glare. This method is especially good on perfectly flat, shiny surfaces. For example, it works very well on plastic garbage bags after glue fuming when the fingerprints have not come up in well-developed white prints. Stretch the area of plastic with a print tightly over a beaker or end of a can to hold it flat, securing the plastic firmly with a rubber band to keep it stretched. Focus down on the print, using an overhead ceiling light to provide the necessary glare to highlight the print.
The third method is with the use of what might be described as "oblique transmitted light." This method is particularly good for photographing glue-fumed prints on clear plastic film such as cling wrap or plastic baggies. Stretch the clear plastic material over a glass beaker or wide mouth jar with the print centered over the opening, again using a rubber band to hold it in place. Cut out some various sized circles of black paper, from 1" diameter to 4" diameter. If a light table is available, place an appropriately sized black circle on the table under the beaker, so that the light is blocked from the print itself in the view of the camera. This will produce a crisp white fingerprint on a black background. If no light table is available, some experimentation and imagination may be required to figure out how to get the light source to shine through the plastic material with the black background under the print, but the results will be worth the effort.
In the next issue of Minutiæ, Pat will write about using iodine and silver nitrate to develop latent prints on porous surfaces.
Monday, March 2, 2009
Forensic Anthropologists
What is Forensic Anthropology?
Generally speaking forensic anthropology is the examination of human skeletal remains for law enforcement agencies to determine the identity of unidentified bones.
Further definition of the term is necessary to understand the scope and basis of forensic anthropology. Anthropology alone is the study of man. Anthropologists are interested in culture (cultural anthropologists), language (linguistic anthropologists), the physical remains or artifacts left behind by human occupation (archaeologists), and human remains or bones and teeth (physical anthropologists).
Over the past century physical anthropologists (those who study human remains) have developed methods to evaluate bones to figure out things about people who lived in the past. These techniques help them to answer questions about the remains they are studying.
The questions that might be looked into include: Was this individual male or female? How old were they when they died? How tall were they? Were the people studied in good or poor general health?
Forensic anthropology involves the application of these same methods to modern cases of unidentified human remains. Through the established methods, a forensic anthropologist can aid law enforcement in establishing a profile on the unidentified remains. The profile includes sex, age, ethnicity, height, length of time since death, and sometimes the evaluation of trauma seen on bones.
In many cases after identity of an individual is made, the forensic anthropologist is called to testify in court regarding the identity of the remains and/or the trauma or wounds present on the remains.
What do forensic anthropologists do?
Forensic anthropologists are commonly portrayed in the media as forensic scientists and/or crime scene technicians, but this is not accurate. Forensic anthropologists deal strictly with the human remains. While some people trained in forensic anthropology are also trained in evidence collection techniques, most forensic anthropologists only specialize in techniques related to analysis of the remains or bones only.
Generally, forensic anthropologists do not do any of the following:
•Collect trace evidence (hair, fibers)
•Run DNA tests
•Analyze ballistics or weapon evidence
•Analyze blood spatter
•Conduct autopsies
What a forensic anthropologist does do to aid in a case:
•Goes to a crime scene to assist in the collection of human remains
•Cleans up the bones so that they may be looked at
•Analyzes skeletal remains to establish the profile of the individual
•Looks at trauma evident on the bones to establish the pathway of a bullet or the number of stab wounds
•Works with a forensic odontologist (dentist) to match dental records
•Testifies in court about the identity of the individual and/or the injuries that might be evident in the skeleton
What training do forensic anthropologists need?
Current minimum requirements necessary to become a forensic anthropologist include a Bachelor's degree in anthropology or a closely related field, a Master's degree in anthropology, and usually a PhD in physical anthropology.
Additionally, during their education the student must seek out opportunities to gain experience by assisting an established forensic anthropologist with casework.
After the PhD, there is still additional training to complete. Though not a requirement, the American Board of Forensic Anthropology recognizes established forensic anthropologists as diplomates after the required educational requirements are met and the candidate successfully completes written and practical exams.
Where do forensic anthropologists work?
Forensic anthropologists are employed primarily at universities and forensic facilities around the country. Most forensic anthropologists teach and perform research in other areas of anthropology in addition to their casework. Some forensic anthropologists have found jobs in forensic facilities where they work closely with medical examiners or forensic pathologists.
What are examples of cases forensic anthropologists work on?
Here are two case scenarios where the assistance of a forensic anthropologist would be necessary:
Case 1: A hunter is in the woods and comes across what he thinks is a human skull. He marks the area and goes to get police to bring them back to the area. A forensic anthropologist might be called to assist in determining first of all if the remains are in fact human. If the remains are human then the anthropologist can assist law enforcement with the collection of the remains at the scene. Typically the anthropologist would photograph the remains prior to removal and also make a pictorial view or site map of the area so that if need be the scene could be recreated later. During the scene work the anthropologist would work with other crime scene specialists who might be interested in other evidence that cold be found at the scene such as weapons, blood, DNA, etc. Forensic anthropologists can then look at the bones to establish a profile of the remains including the age, sex, ethnicity, height, time since death, and trauma. If the police have a missing person in mind, the forensic anthropologist can then work with the medical examiner and forensic odontologist to determine if the identity is a match.
Case 2: A forensic pathologist is presented with partially decomposed remains of an individual and the identity has already been established. However, there is evidence of multiple traumatic injuries (example: gun shot wounds and/or knife wounds) that occurred close to the time of death and the state of the remains prevents the pathologist from being able to fully understand the extent of the trauma to the remains. The forensic anthropologist aids the pathologist by cleaning the bones and looking closely at them to determine the number and type of traumatic episodes. Through their analyses the forensic anthropologist is able to identify multiple types of traumatic injury, potentially an important factor in the trial.
University of Tennessee Forensic Anthropology Center
Who is Clyde Snow?
Clyde Snow
1928 -
Clyde Snow is perhaps the most famous forensic anthropologists in the world today. He prefers to call his work, "osteobiography" saying, "there is a brief but very useful and informative biography of an individual contained within the skeleton, if you know how to read it" (Current Biography 52).
He was born in Fort Worth, Texas on January 7, 1928 to Wister Clyde Snow and Sarah Isabel Snow. His father was a doctor, so Clyde was frequently shuttled around on house calls with his parents, learning much about medicine, life and death. His first encounter with bones happened when he was twelve on a hunting trip with his father. His dad helped identify some mysterious bones which turned out to be a mule deer along with a man who had been missing for a few years (Current Biography 53).
Snow's scholastic achievements in school started somewhat shaky. During his sophomore year in high school he was expelled for a particular fire cracker incident. He then transferred to the New Mexico Military Institute in Roswell, where his grades dropped until a fellow student showed him how to study. He managed to get his Associates Degree there. Next he attended Southern Methodist University in Dallas and decided that having fun would be his main priority and promptly flunked out. By 1951 though he had earned his Bachelors Degree from Eastern New Mexico University and continued straight into Texas Technical University to get his masters degree in Zoology. The next three years he served as a Lieutenant in the U.S. Air Force Medical Service Corps at the Histopathology Center. In 1958, he enrolled at the University of Arizona, to study Archaeology. He later switched to Anthropology, and received his Ph.D. studying the growth of Savannah baboons (Current Biography 53).
It was 1967 and he had already been working at the Civil Aeromedical Institute (CAMI) for six years where he studied airplane crash fatalities. Snow would examine the remains to determine the cause of death and CAMI would use this information to update and improve airline safety and precautions. Here he began to develop his interest and skills in Forensic Anthropology and eventually became the Head of the department in 1968. His reputation grew from there and in 1972 the American Academy of Forensic Sciences acknowledged forensic work as a specialty within the discipline of anthropology (Huyghe 165).
By 1979 he decided to focus solely on forensics. Here is a compilation of some of his better known skeletal confirmations: John F. Kennedy, the men who fought in General Custer's "last stand" in 1876, Dr. Josef Mengele, the famous Nazi war criminal who fled to Brazil the many victims of serial killer,John Wayne Gacey, Egyptian boy King Tutankhamun and the victims of the Oklahoma bombing (Current Biography 52).
Besides these very public and well known figures he has worked extensively with Americas Watch and other human rights groups. In the 1980's he went to Argentina to exhume mass graves filled with innocent civilians who had been killed by government death squads during the war. He has worked in Argentina, Guatemala, Ethiopia, Philippines, Croatia and others. So far his work has led to the conviction of five officers in Argentina (Huyghe 166). Hundreds of officers were involved of course, but this is a start. More than anything, his work has brought these atrocities to the surface, where the bodies have to be dealt with and questioned by the public and governments.
Currently, Snow is working in former Yugoslavia, near Ovcara. It has become one of the largest forensic excavations ever dealing with war crimes (Stover 40). Snow still teaches at the University of Oklahoma and sometimes lectures to Forensic Science organizations and Law Enforcement personnel. When he's not traveling he lives near Oklahoma City with his wife Jerry Whistler (Current Biography 54). He maintains his Texas roots and personality that may help him cope while wading through so much sadness each day. His advice to co-workers in the field is, "you do the work in the daytime and cry at night" (Green 111).
References:
Current Biography 58.4 (1997):52-54.
Green, Michele. "Dr. Clyde Snow Helps Victims of Argentina's "Dirty War" Bear Witness From the Grave" People Weekly Dec 8, 1986: 111.
Huyghe Patrick. "Clyde Snow The Detective's Detective" Readers Digest 137.823 (1990):165.
Stover Eric. "The Grave at Vukovar" Smithsonian 27.12 (1997):40+.
Written by students in an Introduction to Anthropology course at MSU-Mankato
Wednesday, February 18, 2009
Thursday, February 5, 2009
Interview with FBI - Tampa Spokesman Dave Couvertier
February 5, 2009
Criminalistics Class
Professor Hunnicutt
Marlene Hoenig, Student Report
February 5, 2009
When does the FBI get involved?
A phone interview with Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Tampa spokesman Dave Couvertier revealed the FBI is in a new era of investigation and enforcement. The threat of national security since 911 has increased and heightened the concern and welfare for our country. The FBI plays a major role in this. The FBI has over 400 classifications of investigations including but is not limited to white collar crimes, civil rights issues, gang related activities, cybercrime, kidnapping, and bank robberies.
The FBI is the largest and leading investigation agency in the United States, part of the Department of Justice, under the Attorney General’s Office. The FBI also houses the largest forensic laboratory in the world.
Dave Couvertier said their most recent and biggest case this year, which ranks second only to the Presidential inauguration, was the Super Bowl. They started work one week before the Super Bowl event; which includes constant 24 hour round the clock intelligence gathering, surveillance, information gathering, working together with over 20 government agencies, including Homeland Security. FBI, bomb squads, systems and crime analysts’, agents and office personnel all gather to insure the event is threat free, before during and one day after the event.
Couvertier said the FBI has a great working relationship with local law enforcement agencies throughout the state of Florida. There are three field offices in Florida, Jacksonville, covering the northern portion of the state, Tampa, covers Central Florida and Miami which handles the southern portion of the state. When asked when and how they get involved in local cases, Couvertier explained that whenever it is apparent a kidnapping has occurred either through physical or testimonial evidence, the FBI is called to the scene. If it is a case of a missing person there is a 24 hour waiting period unless it is a child of “tender years”, (usually under age 12). If this is the case, the waiting period is waived and they are on the job, working parallel with the local law enforcement agency.”If we get a call, the FBI is there. This is our job. Our agents take our work very seriously as do the other law enforcement agencies,” said Couvertier. “If we know from the start it’s a kidnapping, we will be immediately get involved in the case. We work together to get the best results possible, for any given situation,” says Couvertier.
Couvertier is the spokesman for the FBI in the recent kidnapping of the Lakeland pilot, Robert Arthur Wiles, reported a ransom note was found. This is an unusual case for the FBI because a ransom note was sent. According to statistics and the FBI spokesman, ransom notes are very rare in the United State. This fact makes the Lakeland case unusual as well as other clues in the note, which might reveal information not being released by the Bureau.
This is a “new era” for law enforcement, military and national security personnel. The job requirements, investigation techniques, required network of communication which is needed, weighs heavy upon the shoulders and the hearts of the FBI, and other law enforcement and security agencies, military and government leaders. We are living in a global society where safety, security and attention are always in a heightened state. Closing Couvertier said, “We must stay at attention at all times. Sometimes it difficult to sleep at night, hoping you didn’t miss something.”
Criminalistics Class
Professor Hunnicutt
Marlene Hoenig, Student Report
February 5, 2009
When does the FBI get involved?
A phone interview with Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Tampa spokesman Dave Couvertier revealed the FBI is in a new era of investigation and enforcement. The threat of national security since 911 has increased and heightened the concern and welfare for our country. The FBI plays a major role in this. The FBI has over 400 classifications of investigations including but is not limited to white collar crimes, civil rights issues, gang related activities, cybercrime, kidnapping, and bank robberies.
The FBI is the largest and leading investigation agency in the United States, part of the Department of Justice, under the Attorney General’s Office. The FBI also houses the largest forensic laboratory in the world.
Dave Couvertier said their most recent and biggest case this year, which ranks second only to the Presidential inauguration, was the Super Bowl. They started work one week before the Super Bowl event; which includes constant 24 hour round the clock intelligence gathering, surveillance, information gathering, working together with over 20 government agencies, including Homeland Security. FBI, bomb squads, systems and crime analysts’, agents and office personnel all gather to insure the event is threat free, before during and one day after the event.
Couvertier said the FBI has a great working relationship with local law enforcement agencies throughout the state of Florida. There are three field offices in Florida, Jacksonville, covering the northern portion of the state, Tampa, covers Central Florida and Miami which handles the southern portion of the state. When asked when and how they get involved in local cases, Couvertier explained that whenever it is apparent a kidnapping has occurred either through physical or testimonial evidence, the FBI is called to the scene. If it is a case of a missing person there is a 24 hour waiting period unless it is a child of “tender years”, (usually under age 12). If this is the case, the waiting period is waived and they are on the job, working parallel with the local law enforcement agency.”If we get a call, the FBI is there. This is our job. Our agents take our work very seriously as do the other law enforcement agencies,” said Couvertier. “If we know from the start it’s a kidnapping, we will be immediately get involved in the case. We work together to get the best results possible, for any given situation,” says Couvertier.
Couvertier is the spokesman for the FBI in the recent kidnapping of the Lakeland pilot, Robert Arthur Wiles, reported a ransom note was found. This is an unusual case for the FBI because a ransom note was sent. According to statistics and the FBI spokesman, ransom notes are very rare in the United State. This fact makes the Lakeland case unusual as well as other clues in the note, which might reveal information not being released by the Bureau.
This is a “new era” for law enforcement, military and national security personnel. The job requirements, investigation techniques, required network of communication which is needed, weighs heavy upon the shoulders and the hearts of the FBI, and other law enforcement and security agencies, military and government leaders. We are living in a global society where safety, security and attention are always in a heightened state. Closing Couvertier said, “We must stay at attention at all times. Sometimes it difficult to sleep at night, hoping you didn’t miss something.”
When does the FBI get involved?
Federal Bureau of Investigation - Press Room - Headline ...
... WHEN KIDS GO MISSING ... clear, before we get involved there doesn’t ... cases when the
FBI determines an investigation ... the Milwaukee case, two missing ...
www.fbi.gov/page2/june06/card_teams061606.htm - 23k
Federal Bureau of Investigation - Inside the FBI
... domestic terrorism. How does this fit in ... those that are involved in material support ... the
Backfire case, I think the ... going to get their hands ... at www.fbi.gov for ...
www.fbi.gov/inside/archive/inside112108.htm - 30k
Federal Bureau of Investigation National Incident-based ...
... where criminality is involved, drug/narcotics offenses ... better make a case to acquire ... Summary
system does not. The ... can I get NIBRS information? ... at www.fbi.gov/ucr ...
www.fbi.gov/ucr/faqs.htm - 20k
Federal Bureau of Investigation - Press Room - Headline ...
... immediately, just in case. ... about the scene. What does the coordinator see ... determines
what additional FBI resources—if any ... team would get involved if a ...
www.fbi.gov/page2/march07/wmd030507.htm - 29k
Federal Bureau of Investigation - Crimes Against Children - ...
... clear, before we get involved there does NOT ... and the child does NOT have to ... cases when
the FBI determines an investigation ... 18.) If a case is warranted ...
www.fbi.gov/hq/cid/cac/kidnap.htm - 24k
Washington Field Office - FBI - Northern Virginia Public ...
... in a recent case in Arizona ... a potential terrorist get through? What ... crimes are involved
in public ... Call the FBI's Northern Virginia ... the allegation. Does public ...
washingtondc.fbi.gov/virginia_corruption.htm - 35k
Federal Bureau of Investigation - Amerithrax: Linguistic/ ...
... has helped the FBI solve high profile ... writing in lower case lettering. ... area; however,
this does not necessarily mean ... he will get even with ... he is involved in a ...
www.fbi.gov/anthrax/amerithrax.htm - 24k
Federal Bureau of Investigation - Security Clearance Process ...
... describes the process involved in applying and ... Q: How long does it normally take ... goal
of the FBI to complete the ... for each individual case will vary depending ...
www.fbi.gov/clearance/securityclearance.htm - 23k
Federal Bureau of Investigation - Press Room - Headline ...
... That's when we got involved. The representative called the ... in London…who turned the
case over to Agent Fleming ... glad he didn't get away with it ... Does this kind of ...
www.fbi.gov/page2/june07/idtheft061807.htm - 28k
... WHEN KIDS GO MISSING ... clear, before we get involved there doesn’t ... cases when the
FBI determines an investigation ... the Milwaukee case, two missing ...
www.fbi.gov/page2/june06/card_teams061606.htm - 23k
Federal Bureau of Investigation - Inside the FBI
... domestic terrorism. How does this fit in ... those that are involved in material support ... the
Backfire case, I think the ... going to get their hands ... at www.fbi.gov for ...
www.fbi.gov/inside/archive/inside112108.htm - 30k
Federal Bureau of Investigation National Incident-based ...
... where criminality is involved, drug/narcotics offenses ... better make a case to acquire ... Summary
system does not. The ... can I get NIBRS information? ... at www.fbi.gov/ucr ...
www.fbi.gov/ucr/faqs.htm - 20k
Federal Bureau of Investigation - Press Room - Headline ...
... immediately, just in case. ... about the scene. What does the coordinator see ... determines
what additional FBI resources—if any ... team would get involved if a ...
www.fbi.gov/page2/march07/wmd030507.htm - 29k
Federal Bureau of Investigation - Crimes Against Children - ...
... clear, before we get involved there does NOT ... and the child does NOT have to ... cases when
the FBI determines an investigation ... 18.) If a case is warranted ...
www.fbi.gov/hq/cid/cac/kidnap.htm - 24k
Washington Field Office - FBI - Northern Virginia Public ...
... in a recent case in Arizona ... a potential terrorist get through? What ... crimes are involved
in public ... Call the FBI's Northern Virginia ... the allegation. Does public ...
washingtondc.fbi.gov/virginia_corruption.htm - 35k
Federal Bureau of Investigation - Amerithrax: Linguistic/ ...
... has helped the FBI solve high profile ... writing in lower case lettering. ... area; however,
this does not necessarily mean ... he will get even with ... he is involved in a ...
www.fbi.gov/anthrax/amerithrax.htm - 24k
Federal Bureau of Investigation - Security Clearance Process ...
... describes the process involved in applying and ... Q: How long does it normally take ... goal
of the FBI to complete the ... for each individual case will vary depending ...
www.fbi.gov/clearance/securityclearance.htm - 23k
Federal Bureau of Investigation - Press Room - Headline ...
... That's when we got involved. The representative called the ... in London…who turned the
case over to Agent Fleming ... glad he didn't get away with it ... Does this kind of ...
www.fbi.gov/page2/june07/idtheft061807.htm - 28k
FBI - What do they investigate?
FBI PAGE
The very heart of FBI operations lies in our investigations—which serve, as our mission states, "to protect and defend the United States against terrorist and foreign intelligence threats and to enforce the criminal laws of the United States." We currently have jurisdiction over violations of more than 200 categories of federal law, and you can find the major ones below, grouped within our three national security priorities and our five criminal priorities. Also visit our Intelligence program site, which underpins and informs all our investigative programs.
National Security Priorities Criminal Priorities
1. Counterterrorism
• International Terrorism
• Domestic Terrorism
• Weapons of Mass Destruction
2. Counterintelligence
• Counterespionage
• Counterproliferation
• Economic Espionage
3. Cyber Crime
• Computer Intrusions
• Online Predators
• Piracy/Intellectual Property Theft
• Internet Fraud
4. Public Corruption
• Government Fraud
• Election Fraud
• Foreign Corrupt Practices
5. Civil Rights
• Hate Crime
• Human Trafficking
• Color of Law
• Freedom of Access to Clinics
6. Organized Crime
• Italian Mafia/LCN
• Eurasian
• Balkan
• Middle Eastern
• Asian
• African
• Sports Bribery
7. White-Collar Crime
• Antitrust
• Bankruptcy Fraud
• Corporate/Securities Fraud
• Health Care Fraud
• Identity Theft
• Insurance Fraud
• Money Laundering
• Mortgage Fraud
• Telemarketing Fraud
• More White-Collar Frauds
8. Major Thefts/Violent Crime
• Art Theft
• Cargo Theft
• Crimes Against Children
• Cruise Ship Crime
• Indian Country Crime
• Jewelry and Gems Theft
• Retail Theft
• Vehicle Theft
• Violent Gangs
The very heart of FBI operations lies in our investigations—which serve, as our mission states, "to protect and defend the United States against terrorist and foreign intelligence threats and to enforce the criminal laws of the United States." We currently have jurisdiction over violations of more than 200 categories of federal law, and you can find the major ones below, grouped within our three national security priorities and our five criminal priorities. Also visit our Intelligence program site, which underpins and informs all our investigative programs.
National Security Priorities Criminal Priorities
1. Counterterrorism
• International Terrorism
• Domestic Terrorism
• Weapons of Mass Destruction
2. Counterintelligence
• Counterespionage
• Counterproliferation
• Economic Espionage
3. Cyber Crime
• Computer Intrusions
• Online Predators
• Piracy/Intellectual Property Theft
• Internet Fraud
4. Public Corruption
• Government Fraud
• Election Fraud
• Foreign Corrupt Practices
5. Civil Rights
• Hate Crime
• Human Trafficking
• Color of Law
• Freedom of Access to Clinics
6. Organized Crime
• Italian Mafia/LCN
• Eurasian
• Balkan
• Middle Eastern
• Asian
• African
• Sports Bribery
7. White-Collar Crime
• Antitrust
• Bankruptcy Fraud
• Corporate/Securities Fraud
• Health Care Fraud
• Identity Theft
• Insurance Fraud
• Money Laundering
• Mortgage Fraud
• Telemarketing Fraud
• More White-Collar Frauds
8. Major Thefts/Violent Crime
• Art Theft
• Cargo Theft
• Crimes Against Children
• Cruise Ship Crime
• Indian Country Crime
• Jewelry and Gems Theft
• Retail Theft
• Vehicle Theft
• Violent Gangs
Notes for Lab Test February 5th, Criminalistics Class
Review for Lab exam Criminilistics – Professor Hunnicut
Chemistry – pH = Acid 7↓ base 7↑
Functional group Molecule
Be able to answer questions like those on pages 1-11
Measurement
Know Basic units of metric change from one metric unit to antother
(ie. ml→cc, cm →mm, g→kg
cc stands for cubic centimeters
Measure block, etc. foot to height formula,
Know Terms
SA
VOL
WT
DENSITY
DENSITY of H2O
Microscope Parts of total magnification
Size of object
Working Distance
Depth of vision
How to focus
How to put up
DFV
Bones
Skull
Pelvis
Femur
Humerus
Anterior – Front
Posterior – Back
Proximal – Close
Distal – Distant
Superior – Top
Inferior – Bottom
Know how to determine height, age, sex, race, age
Know how to use protractor & Calipers
Sciotic notch
Pubic Angle
Occipital
Nuccal Crest
Mandible
Nasal Index
Length of Femur
Bicondular Width
Male and Female Pelvis
Know all pieces of equipment used (see materials list)
Be able to use protractor, caliper (both kinds)
Chemistry – pH = Acid 7↓ base 7↑
Functional group Molecule
Be able to answer questions like those on pages 1-11
Measurement
Know Basic units of metric change from one metric unit to antother
(ie. ml→cc, cm →mm, g→kg
cc stands for cubic centimeters
Measure block, etc. foot to height formula,
Know Terms
SA
VOL
WT
DENSITY
DENSITY of H2O
Microscope Parts of total magnification
Size of object
Working Distance
Depth of vision
How to focus
How to put up
DFV
Bones
Skull
Pelvis
Femur
Humerus
Anterior – Front
Posterior – Back
Proximal – Close
Distal – Distant
Superior – Top
Inferior – Bottom
Know how to determine height, age, sex, race, age
Know how to use protractor & Calipers
Sciotic notch
Pubic Angle
Occipital
Nuccal Crest
Mandible
Nasal Index
Length of Femur
Bicondular Width
Male and Female Pelvis
Know all pieces of equipment used (see materials list)
Be able to use protractor, caliper (both kinds)
Wednesday, January 28, 2009
Local FBI Field Office
Tampa
FBI Tampa
5525 West Gray Street
Tampa, Florida 33609
(813) 253-1000
tampa.fbi.gov
FBI Tampa
5525 West Gray Street
Tampa, Florida 33609
(813) 253-1000
tampa.fbi.gov
Seminole County Medical Examiner
What is a medical examiner?
Many people confuse a “coroner” with a “medical examiner.” A coroner is an elected or appointed government official who may not have a medical degree. A medical examiner is a licensed physician who is appointed by the governor to investigate violent, suspicious or unnatural deaths. The State of Florida has a district medical examiner system, which includes 24 district offices. Each district has a chief medical examiner who independently, objectively and scientifically determines the cause and manner of death under certain circumstances. Associate medical examiners, forensic investigators and other law enforcement personnel assist the chief medical examiner.
The Florida District 7 Medical Examiner’s Office is an independent entity from all law enforcement agencies and hospitals within its jurisdiction. This office also provides forensic services under annual contracts with Seminole County (District 24).
What deaths are under the jurisdiction of the medical examiner?
Florida State Statute 406.11, also known as the Medical Examiner’s Statute, defines which deaths fall under the jurisdiction of the medical examiner. A non-natural or traumatic death of any kind will fall under the jurisdiction of the medical examiner. Any death resulting from homicide, suicide or accidental circumstances will be investigated by the medical examiner. Natural deaths in which the decedent does not have a physician or the physician is unwilling to sign the death certificate, will fall under the medical examiner’s jurisdiction.
What is the duty of a law enforcement officer upon discovering a death?
Florida Statutes 406.14 governs the role of a law enforcement officer when he or she discovers a death. The medical examiner has jurisdiction over the body and any objects in contact with the body. Upon arrival at the death scene, it is the duty of the officer to immediately establish contact with the Medical Examiner’s Office and follow the direction of the medical examiner during the investigation into the cause of death. In addition, any evidence material to the determination of the cause of death in possession of the law enforcement officers assigned to the investigation of the death shall be made available to the medical examiner.
"…It is the duty of the law enforcement officer assigned to and investigating the death to immediately establish and maintain liaison with the medical examiner during the investigation into the cause of death." (Florida Statute 406.14)
Is a forensic investigation necessary for every death?
Deaths from natural disease, in which a Florida-licensed physician is willing to sign a death certificate, generally do not fall under the medical examiner’s jurisdiction. In cases of sudden and unexpected, or violent deaths (which include all non-natural deaths), an investigation into the circumstances surrounding the death is legally required. The purpose of this investigation is to determine the cause, manner and mechanism of death as well as to establish the circumstances of death and the identity of the deceased. In many cases the medical examiner may be able to discover evidence of hidden injury to explain a sudden death or may be able to document a natural disease process to illustrate that foul play was not involved in the death.
It is important to understand that government agencies, as well as private citizens and family members, rely on the findings of the medical examiner to resolve questions regarding deaths.
What is the normal process of a forensic death investigation?
In many cases when there is a death, at least two jurisdictions are involved. The police or law enforcement agencies involved have jurisdiction over the crime scene and it’s associated physical evidence. The medical examiner is responsible for the body of the deceased and any physical evidence in direct contact with the body. With the exception of life-saving efforts that may be attempted by fire/ rescue officials, the body may not be touched or moved by anyone (including law enforcement officials) without the permission of the medical examiner. Therefore, forensic investigators from the Medical Examiner’s Office typically respond to every non-natural death scene before the body is removed from the scene. Forensic investigators will document the pertinent details and collect information about the circumstances of death. The body will then be transported to the Medical Examiner’s Office, where it will be placed in refrigeration until examination.
What is a forensic autopsy?
In most cases, an autopsy will be necessary to adequately document the cause, manner and mechanism of death. In addition, an autopsy will help to corroborate or refute the circumstances of death. The autopsy is a medical procedure that consists of an external and internal examination of the entire body. All the internal organs are inspected for indications of injury or natural disease processes. During this procedure, the physician will collect various body tissues and fluids. If necessary, blood and bodily fluid may be analyzed to determine the cause of death. Rarely does an autopsy interfere with the final viewing and funeral of the deceased.
Is an autopsy always required?
No. Sometimes the medical examiner may be able to certify the cause and manner of death with just an external examination. The medical examiner is sympathetic to the wishes of the family and in some cases may be able to accommodate their desires. A complete autopsy must be performed in all police custody deaths.
A complete autopsy may not be performed in cases of natural death in which an adequate medical history exists to document the illness, and in which no indications of foul play exist.
What is the purpose of a forensic autopsy?
The purpose of the autopsy is to determine the cause, manner and underlying mechanism of death. This procedure also documents all the significant pathologic conditions present in the body.
Does the medical examiner need permission to conduct an autopsy?
According to Florida State Law, the medical examiner does not need to seek permission from the next-of-kin before the autopsy. Any religious objections that may be raised by the next-of-kin prior to an autopsy are handled on a case-by-case basis.
Is permission needed for organ or tissue donation?
According to Florida State Law, only the next-of-kin can grant permission for organ or tissue donation. Permission for donation is requested by the organ procurement agency. The medical examiner must grant permission for the agency to proceed with organ or tissue procurement to ensure that the duties of the Office of the Medical Examiner are not compromised. To protect certain forensic evidence, the medical examiner may object to any organ or tissue procurement procedure.
When can the body be released for burial?
The medical examiner makes every attempt to complete his or her investigation as rapidly and efficiently as possible so the family can proceed with funeral arrangements. For the majority of cases, the autopsy is completed within 24 hours and the body is available for release the day after it is received. For some homicide cases and cases requiring scientific identification, the body may not be available for release for several days.
When is the autopsy report available?
While the body is usually released within 24 hours, there may be a significant delay in the release of the autopsy report. Typically, the autopsy report will be available within 90 days. However, some cases may take longer. This is because the medical examiner may request consultation from other laboratories and testing agencies. Therefore, the medical examiner must obtain the results before the report is finalized.
Are autopsy photographs public record?
The release of autopsy photographs is governed by Florida State Statute 406.135. Autopsy photographs are available to the next-of-kin and are released to anyone presenting a court order to do so.
How can I obtain an autopsy report?
All medical examiner cases are public record once final and, as such, any person may obtain a copy of the completed autopsy report. Final reports can be mailed, faxed, e-mailed or picked up at the Medical Examiner's Office, per the requestor's preference. Instructions for obtaining the autopsy report by any of the four options above can be heard by calling the office at 386-258-4060 and selecting the desired option from the menu. Reports can also be requested by printing the Autopsy Report Request Form, completing the form identifying the method of delivery and returning it to the office by mail, fax or e-mail. The report will be sent once it is complete and releasable as a public record. Depending on the complexity of the case, reports may take from 3 to 6 months to complete.
Please be advised autopsy photographs are NOT considered public record and are not provided with the report. The next-of-kin can request autopsy photographs by calling the office for details regarding the required information for release. Some cases may be exempt from public record release while under "active criminal intelligence or active criminal investigation" {Chapter 119.071(2)(c)1., Florida Statute}. Once this designation has been lifted, the records will be available for release.
Send your written request to:
The Office of the Medical Examiner
Attn: Records Custodian
1360 Indian Lake Road
Daytona Beach, FL 32124
How much does it cost to obtain a copy of the autopsy report?
The cost depends on the method of delivery. Certified copies of the report cost 0.05 cents per page, plus postage, handling and envelope costs, if mailed. Reports sent by fax and electronic mail are provided at no cost. Reports picked up at the office are provided at 0.05 cents per page. Additional costs apply if the request includes photographs and copies of other documents in the case file. A clerical fee will also be charged for the actual time spent processing the request.
What information is included in the autopsy report when it is released?
The autopsy report always includes a determination of the cause and manner of death. The report also may include the results of any independent testing that was done.
What happens to personal property on the decedent?
In most cases, the personal property on the body at the time of death is removed at the place of death and turned over to the family or the law enforcement agency. Personal property transported to the Medical Examiner’s Office along with the body is inventoried and released with the body to the funeral home. In homicide cases, the personal effects are considered to be evidence and are turned over to the investigating law enforcement agency.
What is the geographic jurisdiction of the medical examiner?
The place where the body is found (or brought ashore) determines the geographic jurisdiction. District 7 covers Volusia County, and District 24 covers Seminole County.
What is the legal jurisdiction of the medical examiner?
As outlined by section 406.11 of the Florida Statutes:
A death must be reported to the medical examiner whenever a person dies:
1. Of criminal violence
2. By accident
3. By suicide
4. Suddenly, when in apparent good health
5. Unattended by a licensed physician
6. In any prison or penal institution
7. In police custody
8. In any suspicious or unusual circumstance
9. By criminal abortion
10. By poison
11. By disease constituting a threat to public health
12. By disease, injury or toxic agent resulting from employment.
"(2)(a) The district medical examiner shall have the authority in any case coming under subsection (1) to perform, or have performed, whatever autopsies or laboratory examinations he or she deems necessary and in the public interest to determine the identification of or cause or manner of death of the deceased or to obtain evidence necessary for forensic examination." (Florida Statutes 406.11)
Many people confuse a “coroner” with a “medical examiner.” A coroner is an elected or appointed government official who may not have a medical degree. A medical examiner is a licensed physician who is appointed by the governor to investigate violent, suspicious or unnatural deaths. The State of Florida has a district medical examiner system, which includes 24 district offices. Each district has a chief medical examiner who independently, objectively and scientifically determines the cause and manner of death under certain circumstances. Associate medical examiners, forensic investigators and other law enforcement personnel assist the chief medical examiner.
The Florida District 7 Medical Examiner’s Office is an independent entity from all law enforcement agencies and hospitals within its jurisdiction. This office also provides forensic services under annual contracts with Seminole County (District 24).
What deaths are under the jurisdiction of the medical examiner?
Florida State Statute 406.11, also known as the Medical Examiner’s Statute, defines which deaths fall under the jurisdiction of the medical examiner. A non-natural or traumatic death of any kind will fall under the jurisdiction of the medical examiner. Any death resulting from homicide, suicide or accidental circumstances will be investigated by the medical examiner. Natural deaths in which the decedent does not have a physician or the physician is unwilling to sign the death certificate, will fall under the medical examiner’s jurisdiction.
What is the duty of a law enforcement officer upon discovering a death?
Florida Statutes 406.14 governs the role of a law enforcement officer when he or she discovers a death. The medical examiner has jurisdiction over the body and any objects in contact with the body. Upon arrival at the death scene, it is the duty of the officer to immediately establish contact with the Medical Examiner’s Office and follow the direction of the medical examiner during the investigation into the cause of death. In addition, any evidence material to the determination of the cause of death in possession of the law enforcement officers assigned to the investigation of the death shall be made available to the medical examiner.
"…It is the duty of the law enforcement officer assigned to and investigating the death to immediately establish and maintain liaison with the medical examiner during the investigation into the cause of death." (Florida Statute 406.14)
Is a forensic investigation necessary for every death?
Deaths from natural disease, in which a Florida-licensed physician is willing to sign a death certificate, generally do not fall under the medical examiner’s jurisdiction. In cases of sudden and unexpected, or violent deaths (which include all non-natural deaths), an investigation into the circumstances surrounding the death is legally required. The purpose of this investigation is to determine the cause, manner and mechanism of death as well as to establish the circumstances of death and the identity of the deceased. In many cases the medical examiner may be able to discover evidence of hidden injury to explain a sudden death or may be able to document a natural disease process to illustrate that foul play was not involved in the death.
It is important to understand that government agencies, as well as private citizens and family members, rely on the findings of the medical examiner to resolve questions regarding deaths.
What is the normal process of a forensic death investigation?
In many cases when there is a death, at least two jurisdictions are involved. The police or law enforcement agencies involved have jurisdiction over the crime scene and it’s associated physical evidence. The medical examiner is responsible for the body of the deceased and any physical evidence in direct contact with the body. With the exception of life-saving efforts that may be attempted by fire/ rescue officials, the body may not be touched or moved by anyone (including law enforcement officials) without the permission of the medical examiner. Therefore, forensic investigators from the Medical Examiner’s Office typically respond to every non-natural death scene before the body is removed from the scene. Forensic investigators will document the pertinent details and collect information about the circumstances of death. The body will then be transported to the Medical Examiner’s Office, where it will be placed in refrigeration until examination.
What is a forensic autopsy?
In most cases, an autopsy will be necessary to adequately document the cause, manner and mechanism of death. In addition, an autopsy will help to corroborate or refute the circumstances of death. The autopsy is a medical procedure that consists of an external and internal examination of the entire body. All the internal organs are inspected for indications of injury or natural disease processes. During this procedure, the physician will collect various body tissues and fluids. If necessary, blood and bodily fluid may be analyzed to determine the cause of death. Rarely does an autopsy interfere with the final viewing and funeral of the deceased.
Is an autopsy always required?
No. Sometimes the medical examiner may be able to certify the cause and manner of death with just an external examination. The medical examiner is sympathetic to the wishes of the family and in some cases may be able to accommodate their desires. A complete autopsy must be performed in all police custody deaths.
A complete autopsy may not be performed in cases of natural death in which an adequate medical history exists to document the illness, and in which no indications of foul play exist.
What is the purpose of a forensic autopsy?
The purpose of the autopsy is to determine the cause, manner and underlying mechanism of death. This procedure also documents all the significant pathologic conditions present in the body.
Does the medical examiner need permission to conduct an autopsy?
According to Florida State Law, the medical examiner does not need to seek permission from the next-of-kin before the autopsy. Any religious objections that may be raised by the next-of-kin prior to an autopsy are handled on a case-by-case basis.
Is permission needed for organ or tissue donation?
According to Florida State Law, only the next-of-kin can grant permission for organ or tissue donation. Permission for donation is requested by the organ procurement agency. The medical examiner must grant permission for the agency to proceed with organ or tissue procurement to ensure that the duties of the Office of the Medical Examiner are not compromised. To protect certain forensic evidence, the medical examiner may object to any organ or tissue procurement procedure.
When can the body be released for burial?
The medical examiner makes every attempt to complete his or her investigation as rapidly and efficiently as possible so the family can proceed with funeral arrangements. For the majority of cases, the autopsy is completed within 24 hours and the body is available for release the day after it is received. For some homicide cases and cases requiring scientific identification, the body may not be available for release for several days.
When is the autopsy report available?
While the body is usually released within 24 hours, there may be a significant delay in the release of the autopsy report. Typically, the autopsy report will be available within 90 days. However, some cases may take longer. This is because the medical examiner may request consultation from other laboratories and testing agencies. Therefore, the medical examiner must obtain the results before the report is finalized.
Are autopsy photographs public record?
The release of autopsy photographs is governed by Florida State Statute 406.135. Autopsy photographs are available to the next-of-kin and are released to anyone presenting a court order to do so.
How can I obtain an autopsy report?
All medical examiner cases are public record once final and, as such, any person may obtain a copy of the completed autopsy report. Final reports can be mailed, faxed, e-mailed or picked up at the Medical Examiner's Office, per the requestor's preference. Instructions for obtaining the autopsy report by any of the four options above can be heard by calling the office at 386-258-4060 and selecting the desired option from the menu. Reports can also be requested by printing the Autopsy Report Request Form, completing the form identifying the method of delivery and returning it to the office by mail, fax or e-mail. The report will be sent once it is complete and releasable as a public record. Depending on the complexity of the case, reports may take from 3 to 6 months to complete.
Please be advised autopsy photographs are NOT considered public record and are not provided with the report. The next-of-kin can request autopsy photographs by calling the office for details regarding the required information for release. Some cases may be exempt from public record release while under "active criminal intelligence or active criminal investigation" {Chapter 119.071(2)(c)1., Florida Statute}. Once this designation has been lifted, the records will be available for release.
Send your written request to:
The Office of the Medical Examiner
Attn: Records Custodian
1360 Indian Lake Road
Daytona Beach, FL 32124
How much does it cost to obtain a copy of the autopsy report?
The cost depends on the method of delivery. Certified copies of the report cost 0.05 cents per page, plus postage, handling and envelope costs, if mailed. Reports sent by fax and electronic mail are provided at no cost. Reports picked up at the office are provided at 0.05 cents per page. Additional costs apply if the request includes photographs and copies of other documents in the case file. A clerical fee will also be charged for the actual time spent processing the request.
What information is included in the autopsy report when it is released?
The autopsy report always includes a determination of the cause and manner of death. The report also may include the results of any independent testing that was done.
What happens to personal property on the decedent?
In most cases, the personal property on the body at the time of death is removed at the place of death and turned over to the family or the law enforcement agency. Personal property transported to the Medical Examiner’s Office along with the body is inventoried and released with the body to the funeral home. In homicide cases, the personal effects are considered to be evidence and are turned over to the investigating law enforcement agency.
What is the geographic jurisdiction of the medical examiner?
The place where the body is found (or brought ashore) determines the geographic jurisdiction. District 7 covers Volusia County, and District 24 covers Seminole County.
What is the legal jurisdiction of the medical examiner?
As outlined by section 406.11 of the Florida Statutes:
A death must be reported to the medical examiner whenever a person dies:
1. Of criminal violence
2. By accident
3. By suicide
4. Suddenly, when in apparent good health
5. Unattended by a licensed physician
6. In any prison or penal institution
7. In police custody
8. In any suspicious or unusual circumstance
9. By criminal abortion
10. By poison
11. By disease constituting a threat to public health
12. By disease, injury or toxic agent resulting from employment.
"(2)(a) The district medical examiner shall have the authority in any case coming under subsection (1) to perform, or have performed, whatever autopsies or laboratory examinations he or she deems necessary and in the public interest to determine the identification of or cause or manner of death of the deceased or to obtain evidence necessary for forensic examination." (Florida Statutes 406.11)
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)